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 * 1. What is knowledge? **

[|Ryan Micheal Hill]: Knowledge is power, knowing is half the battle!

Knowledge is the perceived intelligence that you have and the ability to use this intelligence.

It's the sum of what is known, including acquaintance with facts, truths,  or principles,  as from  studyor investigation and familiarity  gained by sight, experience,  or <span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">report.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Knowledge is the perception of the agreement or disagreement of two ideas — John Locke (1689)

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Davenport and Prusak (1998, p. 5) define knowledge as, "a fluid mix of framed experience, contextual information, values and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information."

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Knowledge is information that changes something or somebody — either by becoming grounds for actions, or by making an individual (or an institution) capable of different or more effective action." — Peter F. Drucker in //The New Realities//

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Achterbergh & Vriens (2002) write that the function of knowledge has two main parts. First, it serves as a background for the assessment of signals, which in turn, allows the performance of actions. As to the first part, they write, “To determine whether a signal is informative, an observer has to 'attach meaning to it,' e.g., to perceive and interpret it. Once perceived and interpreted the observer may evaluate whether the signal is informative and whether action is required.” They follow this with, “The role of knowledge in generating appropriate actions is that it serves as a background for articulating possible courses of action (articulation), for judging whether courses of action will yield the intended result and for using this judgment in selecting among them (selection), for deciding how actions should be implemented and for actually implementing actions (implementation).”

<span style="color: #181818; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">“All knowledge that is about human society, and not about the natural world, is historical knowledge, and therefore rests upon judgment and interpretation. This is not to say that facts or data are nonexistent, but that facts get their importance from what is made of them in interpretation… for interpretations depend very much on who the interpreter is, who he or she is addressing, what his or her purpose is, at what historical moment the interpretation takes place.” [|Edward W. Said]

<span style="color: #181818; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">On Wikipedia there is a page about Epistemology which in its basic definition states that epistemology is <span style="color: #222222; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the theory of knowledge, esp. with regard to its methods, validity, and scope. <span style="color: #222222; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The word comes <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">from <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> [|Greek] // [|ἐπιστήμη] (epistēmē) // <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">, meaning "knowledge, science", and // [|λόγος] ( [|logos] )//, meaning "study of" <span style="color: #222222; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">. This article states that knowledge can be broken down into 3 main groups which are knowledge that, knowledge how and knowledge by acquaintance.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 20pt;">2. Where does knowledge reside? **

<span style="color: #3b5998; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[|Ryan Micheal Hill] <span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: <span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Knowledge is your life experience it comes from your brain and your lives that you lived cus you dont remember those cus if you did your brain cells would explode or if you’re a fresh soul then it comes with time

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Knowledge resides in the inner workings and crevices of your brain you may or may not know that you possess until the right circumstance arises and then comes to the fore.



<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The discussion from the Wikipedia page on Epistemology also believes that knowledge is based on belief, truth and justification, but there have been any problems with this perception most notably from American philosopher Edmund Gettier who is remembered for his 1963 argument that <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">there are situations in which one's belief may be justified and true, yet fail to count as knowledge. That is, Gettier contended that while justified belief in a true proposition is necessary for that proposition to be known, it is not sufficient <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 20pt;">3. How is knowledge created? **

<span style="color: #3b5998; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[|Ryan Micheal Hill]: <span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">It’s kind of an energy/pre-existence thingy crossed with your genetic code that has been molded to your thinking and gives your knowledge

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Someone creates intelligence that they pass on to others and is then applied as knowledge. e.g. Einstein applied his knowledge of chemistry to create the intelligence with which to split the atom which now being applied as knowledge by others to create power or destruction.



<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Once again the article on Wikipedia defines the acquisition of knowledge under many different areas of perception. Most notably a priori and a posteriori knowledge which can be defined as:


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A priori knowledge is knowledge that is known independently of experience (that is, it is non-empirical, or arrived at beforehand, usually by reason). It will henceforth be acquired through anything that is independent from experience.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A posteriori knowledge is knowledge that is known by experience (that is, it is empirical, or arrived at afterward).


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 20pt;">4. Types of Knowledge **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Explicit knowledge **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> can be articulated into formal language, including grammatical statements (words and numbers), mathematical expressions, specifications, manuals, etc. Explicit knowledge can be readily transmitted others. Also, it can easily be processed by a computer, transmitted electronically, or stored in databases.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Nonaka & Takeuchi's model (pp. 63-69) of the four modes of knowledge //creation// or //conversion// that are derived from the two kinds of knowledge:
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Tacit knowledge **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> is personal knowledge embedded in individual experience and involves intangible factors, such as personal beliefs, perspective, and the value system. Tacit knowledge is hard to articulate with formal language (hard, but not impossible). It contains subjective insights, intuitions, and hunches. Before tacit knowledge can be communicated, it must be converted into words, models, or numbers that can be understand. In addition, there are two dimensions to tacit knowledge:
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Technical Dimension (procedural) **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: This encompasses the kind of informal and skills often captured in the term //know-how//. For example, a craftsperson develops a wealth of expertise after years of experience. But a craftsperson often has difficulty articulating the technical or scientific principles of his or her craft. Highly subjective and personal insights, intuitions, hunches and inspirations derived from bodily experience fall into this dimension.
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cognitive Dimension **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: This consists of beliefs, perceptions, ideals, values, emotions and mental models so ingrained in us that we take them for granted. Though they cannot be articulated very easily, this dimension of tacit knowledge shapes the way we perceive the world around us.




 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Socialization **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: from tacit to tacit — Sharing experiences to create tacit knowledge, such as shared mental models and technical skills. This also includes observation, imitation, and practice. However, “experience” is the key, which his why the mere “transfer of information” often makes little sense to the receiver.
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Internalization **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: from explicit to tacit — Embodying explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge. Closely related to “learning by doing.” Normally, knowledge is verbalized or diagrammed into documents or oral stories.
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Externalization **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: from tacit to explicit — The quintessential process of articulating tacit knowledge into explicit concepts through metaphors, analogies, concepts, hypothesis, or models. Note that when we conceptualize an image, we express its essence mostly in language.
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Combination, **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: from explicit to explicit — A process of systemizing concepts into a knowledge system. Individuals exchange and combine knowledge through media, such as documents, meetings, and conversations. Information is reconfigured by such means as sorting, combining, and categorizing. Formal education and many training programs work this way.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 20pt;">References: **
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">John Locke (1689) //BOOK IV. Of Knowledge and Probability//. "An Essay: Concerning Human Understanding.
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Davenport T., Prusak L. (1998). [|//Working Knowledge.//] Harvard Business School Press: Boston, MA.
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Achterbergh, Jan & Vriens, Dirk (May-June 2002). "Managing viable knowledge." //Systems Research and Behavioral Science.// V19 i3 p223(19).
 * 4) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/knowledge
 * 5) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">http://nwlink.com/~donclark/knowledge/knowledge.html
 * 6) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Nonaka and Takeuchi, __The Knowledge-Creating Company__, 1995, p. 71.
 * 7) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Edward W Said (1935-2003)